Force-distance curves by atomic force microscopy
B. Cappella, G. Dietler
lnstitut de Physique de la Matikre Condersie, Universiti de Lausanne,
CH-IO15 Lausanne, Switzerland
Contents
1. Introduction
1.1. General overview: AFM and force~listance curves
1.2. Relation between AFM force~listance curves and tip-sample interaction force
1.3. Differences between the approach and withdrawal curve
1.4. The three regions of the force~clisplacement curve
1.5. Non-contact mode
2. Theories of contact region
2.1. Hertz and Sneddon
2.2. Bradley, Derjaguin-Mtiller-Toporov and Johnson-Kendall-Roberts
2.3. Maugis
2.4. Artifacts
2.5. Experimental results
3. Theories of non-contact region
3.1. Approach curve: jump-to-contact and attractive forces
3.2. Withdrawal curve: jump-off-contact and adhesion forces
4. The zero line
5. Calibration
5.1. Methods for the calculation of forces
5.2. The cantilever elastic constant and the tip radius
5.3. Noise and systematic errors
6. Measurement of forces
6.1. Forces in air
6.1.1. Meniscus force
6.1.2. Coulomb force
6.2. Van der Waals force
6.2.1. Theory
6.2.2. Experimental results
6.2.3. Dependence on tip shape
6.3. Double-layer force
6.3.1. Theory
6.3.2. Experimental results
6.3.3. Dependence on tip shape
6.4. Solvation forces
6.4.1. Theory
6.4.2. Experimental results
6.5. Hydration forces
6.6. Hydrophobic force
6.7. Specific forces
6.8. Steric, depletion, and bridge forces
7. Imaging based on force-distance curves
7.1. Comparative curve plotting
7.2. Force-slices
7.3. Mapping parameters drawn from force-distance curves
7.4. Affinity imaging
8. Synopsis
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